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Glossary of HOL Terminology

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abstract datatype : (n) An ML datatype whose structure is only visible inside the module implementing it. Outside its implementation module, its elements can only ultimately be created and broken down respectively by ML constructor and destructor functions provided in the module interface, which are called the "primitive constructors" and "primitive destructors" of the datatype. The implementation of the primitive constructors can thus be used to enforce a notion of well-formedness on the elements. HOL Zero uses abstract datatypes for its internal representation of HOL types, terms and theorems. Abbreviated to "ADT" in some texts. See "LCF approach".

abstract syntax : (n) 1. A syntax (sense 1) for the internal representation of expressions of a given programming language or formal language. In HOL Zero, the abstract syntax used for HOL types and terms is the primitive syntax of the HOL language. Compare with "concrete syntax". See "parser", "pretty printer". 2. Expressions of a given abstract syntax (sense 1).

abstraction : (n) An abbreviation used in some texts for "lambda abstraction".

abstraction function : (n) See "type bijections".

ad-hoc polymorphism : (n) The ability of a type system to cater for overloaded entities with different types, where overloaded entities do not necessarily have anything else in common other than their name. Compare with "parametric polymorphism".

ADT : (n) An abbreviation for "abstract datatype".

alias : (n) An alternative name of a given HOL theory entity, purely for use in quotations. Aliases are not used in the internal representation of HOL objects. HOL Zero does not support aliases except for a fixed alias for logical equivalence (namely "<=>") as a type instance of equality. Other HOL systems allow aliases to be declared for constants. See "overloading".

alpha conversion : (n) The process of transforming a HOL term by renaming one or more of its binding variables, to result in an alpha-equivalent term. Compare with "beta reduction", "eta reduction".

alpha-convertible : (adj) A name used in some texts for "alpha-equivalent".

alpha-equivalent : (adj) A notion of equivalence between HOL terms, whereby two terms are alpha-equivalent iff they are identical modulo the names of their binding variables. This notion is fundamental to the HOL logic, and alpha-equivalent terms necessarily denote the same value. Also called "alpha-convertible" in some texts. See "alpha conversion".

Example: The HOL term `f (\x. x + 1) y` is alpha-equivalent to `f (\w. w + 1) y`, but not to `f (\w. w + 1) z`.

alphanumeric : (n) 1. A lexical class in HOL Zero, starting with a letter or underscore character, and followed by zero or more letters, digits, underscores and apostrophes. (adj) 2. Relating to the lexical class alphanumeric.

alternation : (n) The choice of either of at least two possible branches to follow, for example in the execution of a computer program or in a formal grammar. Compare with "sequence". See "Backus Naur Form".

antecedent : (n) The LHS of a HOL implication term.

API : (n) An abbreviation for "application programming interface".

application : (n) An abbreviation used in some texts for "function application".

application programming interface : (n) A precisely defined specification of an interface provided by a supporting program to an application program. Use of such a specification has two main advantages. Firstly, it greatly eases the reuse of the same supporting program by multiple application programs. Secondly, it enables different supporting programs to be substituted for each other, so long as they implement the same specification. Usually abbreviated to "API". See "Common HOL".

argument : (n) 1. A value passed to an ML function. 2. The second subterm of a HOL function application term.

arity : (n) The number of type parameters taken by each instance of a given HOL type constant. The arity may be zero, in which case the type constant is a "base type", and otherwise it is a "type operator" (sense 1). See "type constant declaration".

Example: Type constants "bool" and "nat" have arity 0; type constant "list" has arity 1 (e.g. `:nat list`); type constant "->" has arity 2 (e.g. `:nat -> bool`).

assert : (v) To make an assertion (sense 1).

assertion : (n) 1. The act of stating as fact, without formal justification, that a statement holds in a formal logic, extending the theory with a theorem called an "assertion theorem" that asserts the statement. In HOL, the assertion theorem has the asserted statement as its conclusion and has no assumptions. There are two fundamental forms of assertion in HOL: axiom and definition. Note that in mathematical logic, the name "axiom" is used for "assertion" and "assertion theorem". Compare with "declaration". See "conservative extension". 2. An abbreviation for "assertion theorem".

assertion theorem : (n) The theorem resulting from an assertion (sense 1).

association list : (n) A simple ML representation of a lookup table as an unordered list of pairs, with indexes compared under an equivalence relation operator. Entries are added to and looked up from the front of the list, and multiple entries under the same index are allowed. Either the first or the second pair component of entries can be used as the index. Compare with "dynamic lookup tree".

Example: The following is an association list: [ ("red",1); ("green",2); ("blue",3) ];;

associativity : (n) The way in which the arguments of a given infix function syntactically group compounded arguments written without brackets in concrete syntax. See "left-associative", "right-associative", "non-associative".

assumption : (n) See "sequent". Also called "hypothesis" in some texts.

atom : (n) A syntactic category that has no subcomponents. See "term atom", "type atom".

atomic type : (n) 1. A name used in some texts for "base type". 2. A name used in some texts for "type atom".

axiom : (n) 1. The unrestricted form of HOL assertion, whereby any statement can be asserted (although in HOL Zero the statement must have no free variables). Conservative extension is not enforced with axioms, and they can potentially introduce inconsistency to the HOL theory, and so need to be very carefully considered. Compare with "definition" (sense 1). 2. The HOL assertion theorem that results from an axiom assertion. 3. The name used in mathematical logic for "assertion" and "assertion theorem".

Axiom of Choice : (n) A crucial axiom of set theory that states that there is a "choice operator" that, for any non-empty set, selects an element of the set. The Axiom of Choice is an axiom called 'select_ax' in HOL Zero. See "Hilbert choice operator", "Law of the Excluded Middle".

Below is the Axiom of Choice in HOL Zero. It loosely defines "@" as a choice function, that selects an element that satisfies given predicate "P":
|- !(P:'a->bool) x. P x ==> P ($@ P)

axiomatic type class : (n) A mechanism available in some formal logics with a parametric polymorphic type system, allowing polymorphic theorems to use the type system to express conditions about the objects to which they apply. An axiomatic type class is a specification of a type, specifying the existence of values of the type that satisfy given properties. Type variables in theorems can be labelled with axiomatic type classes. Such type variables can then only be instantiated to types that satisfy their type class specifications, in a process that involves providing expressions with the necessary values and the theorems establishing that these expressions satisfy the necessary properties. See "Isabelle/HOL".

backtracking : (n) The process of abandoning the parsing of a given branch of a grammar rule, having successfully parsed at least the first grammar symbol of the branch but then failed to parse subsequent symbols, in order explore other branches. Backtracking can significantly slow down a parser. See "left factor".

Backus-Naur Form : (n) A simple notation for expressing formal grammars, with just two grammar operators: alternation and sequence. Alternation is expressed by infix grammar operator '|', and sequence is implicitly expressed by juxtaposed grammar constructs and binds more tightly than alternation. Usually abbreviated to "BNF". See "Extended Backus-Naur Form".

base system : (n) The classic build of a theorem prover system, that acts as the starting point for a standard user session. In LCF-style systems, the base system consists of the core system plus various standard extensions. Compare with "core system".

base type : (n) A HOL type constant with arity of zero. Also called "type constant", "atomic type" or just "type" in some texts.

Example: "bool" and "nat" are both base types in HOL.

benign redeclaration : (n) The equivalent of "benign redefinition" for ML declaration commands.

benign redefinition : (n) The situation where an ML assertion command is executed for defining a HOL theory entity or axiom that already exists in the theory due to an earlier, trivially equivalent assertion. Benign redefinition is supported in HOL Zero, and results in neither failure nor a change to the theory, but returns the same ML value as would be returned by the original assertion command. Supporting benign redefinition enables proof scripts to be replayed in the same ML session without causing failure. See "redefinition".

beta conversion : (n) A name used in some texts for "beta reduction".

beta reduction : (n) The process of transforming a HOL term that is a function application of a lambda abstraction, by replacing the entire term with the lambda abstraction body but with all occurrences of the binding variable replaced with the argument subterm. Also called "beta conversion" in some texts. Compare with "alpha conversion", "eta reduction".

Example: Beta reduction can be peformed on the following term: `(\x. x * 5) (a + 1)` to result in the following term: `(a + 1) * 5`.

binary function : (n) An ML or HOL function that takes two arguments. Compare with "unary function".

Example: The HOL constants "=" and "\/" are both binary functions.

bind : (v) 1. To designate a given variable as the binding variable for a given binding (sense 1). 2. To syntactically associate with an adjacent subexpression within a quotation. One operator is said to "bind more tightly" than a second if, when both operators are adjacent to an operand without surrounding parentheses, the first operator (rather than the second operator) associates with the operand. See "precedence".

Example: In HOL Zero, "*" binds (sense 2) more tightly than "+", and so `2*x+3` is the same as `(2*x)+3` rather than `2*(x+3)`.

binder : (n) 1. An operator, in a formal language, that returns a value for a given expression (called the "body") with respect to a given placeholder variable in the expression (called the "binding variable"). The binding variable is introduced by the binder, and its scope is restricted to the body. Examples of binders in mathematical logic include quantifiers, the Hilbert choice operator and lambda abstraction. Exactly what kinds of values binding variables can denote is a crucial distinguishing factor between formal languages. See "binding", "first-order", "higher-order". 2. A fixity for HOL constant and variable identifiers that refer to binder entities (sense 1), where the binder comes immediately before a binding variable, followed by ".", followed by a body (as in `Q x. t`). Binders bind least tightly of all fixities. See "binder expression". 3. A HOL constant or variable whose name has binder fixity. In HOL Zero, the constants "!", "?" and "@" are examples. Note that "\" is not a binder in this sense ("\" is not a constant, and lambda abstraction is a primitive syntactic category). (adj) 4. Relating to HOL constants or variableswhose name has binder fixity.

binder expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, denoting a binder (sense 3) acting on a body subterm for a given binding variable. In HOL Zero term quotations, this is written like a lambda abstraction, but with the binder replacing the lambda symbol "\" (as in `Q x . t` for some binder "Q"). The internal representation is the application of the binder to a lambda abstraction.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is a binder expression: `!x. x > x+1` (meaning "for all x, x > x+1") This has the same internal representation as the following term: `$! (\x. x > x+1)`.

binding : (n) 1. A syntactic category of HOL term, denoting a binder (sense 1) acting on a body subterm for a given binding variable. A binding is either a lambda abstraction or a binder expression. 2. The association of an ML name to an ML value.

binding variable : (n) The variable designated for use as a placeholder in a given HOL binding term. Occurrences of a binding variable may only be inside the body of the binding, and if there are occurrences, then the binding variable is called a "bound variable". Note that in other HOL systems, the name "bound variable" is used for "binding variable".

Example: In the HOL Zero term `\x. x + y`, the binding variable is "x".

black-box proof auditing : (n) An approach to proof auditing applicable to LCF-style theorem provers, that takes advantage of the confidence that can be put in using the LCF approach. Assuming the theorem prover's core system is correctly designed/implemented, the content of the proof script used to create a proof can be disregarded, and so too can any other ML source code incorporated into the ML session on top of the core system. This enables the proof auditor to concentrate on the resulting state of the ML session after the proof script has been processed. This involves reviewing the theory's assertions and checking the statement of the proved theorem.

BNF : (n) An abbreviation for "Backus-Naur Form".

body : (n) The subterm of a HOL binding term that is the scope of the binding variable.

Example: The body of the term `!x. x = 2 \/ x = 3` is `x = 2 \/ x = 3`.

boolean : (n) 1. An abbreviation for "boolean type" (senses 1 & 2). 2. A HOL term that has HOL boolean type. (adj) 3. Relating to the two fundamental truth values of propositional logic: "true" and "false". 4. Relating to HOL terms that have HOL boolean type.

boolean type : (n) 1. The ML datatype called 'bool', with two elements: 'true' and 'false'. 2. A HOL base type fundamental to the HOL logic, called "bool" in HOL Zero, for the classic boolean values "true" and "false".

bound variable : (n) 1. A HOL binding variable that occurs in the body of its binding. The scope of a bound variable is restricted to the body of the binding. Compare with "free variable". 2. The name used in other HOL systems for "binding variable".

Example: The bound variables in the following term are "x" and "y": `(?x. x + 3 < z) <=> (\y. y + 1 = 5) 3`.

Cambridge HOL : (n) The prototype first theorem prover for the HOL logic, developed in the early/mid 1980s and originally targetted specifically at hardware formal verification. Its design was heavily influenced by the Cambridge LCF system, including its LCF-style architecture, and its implementation was in Classic ML and reused parts of Cambridge LCF. It was succeeded by HOL88. See "HOL family".

Cambridge LCF : (n) A theorem prover for the LCF logic, developed in the early 1980s as the successor to the Edinburgh LCF system. It was implemented in Classic ML, using the LCF approach. It heavily influenced the design and implementation of the first HOL system, Cambridge HOL.

CAS : (n) An abbreviation for "computer algebra system".

characteristic function : (n) See "type constant definition".

choice operator : (n) An abbreviation for "Hilbert choice operator".

class : (n) See "sum datatype".

Classic ML : (n) The original version of the ML programming language, used in the implementation of Edinburgh LCF, Cambridge LCF, Cambridge HOL and HOL88. Compare with "SML", "OCaml", "F#".

classical : (adj) Relating to formal logics that encompass propositional logic including the Law of the Excluded Middle. In classical logics there can be no boolean values other than "true" and "false". Compare with "intuitionistic". See "HOL logic".

closed : (adj) Relating to instantiation lists for which domain elements do not occur free in range elements. A closed instantiation list is necessarily not cyclic. A closed instantiation list only needs to be applied to a HOL object once in order to eliminate its domain elements from the object. See "instantiation closure".

Example: The old-to-new instantiation list [(`x`,`z`);(`y`,`z`)] is closed, but [(`x`,`y`);(`y`,`z`)] is not.

closure : (n) An abbreviation for either "name closure", "variable closure" or "instantiation closure".

combinatory logic : (n) A subject of mathematical logic and computer science, concerned with the use of specific functions called "combinators" that can be used together to remove the need to explicitly mention parameters in the definition of other functions. Classic studied combinators are, by convention, given one-letter uppercase names, such as 'A', 'B', 'C', 'I', 'K', 'S', 'W', etc. Some of these functions have widespread usage in functional programming, for example the 'B' function is functional composition, and the 'I' function is the identity function. An important result of combinatory logic is that the 'S' and the 'K' functions alone can be used to define all other functions.

Common HOL : (n) A standard for basic HOL system functionality, aimed at facilitating portability of source code and formal proofs between HOL systems. It consists of various components, including: an API, adapted versions of various HOL systems to support the API, a proof object file format, and a proof object importer and exporter for various HOL systems.

complete : (adj) Relating to a logical system in which every statement that holds with respect to its formal semantics is either provable or asserted in its formal logic. The opposite of "incomplete". Compare with "sound". See "completeness".

completeness : (n) The quality of a logical system that is complete. Compare with "logical soundness".

compound type : (n) A primitive syntactic category of HOL type, denoting an instance of a type constant. It has a type constant name and a (possibly empty) list of type parameters (any of which may contain type variables). To be well-formed, the name must be the name of a declared type constant and the length of the parameter list must equal the declared type constant's arity. Also called "type application", "type construction", "non-variable type" or just "type" in some texts.

Example: In the compound type `:'a -> 'a list`, the type constant is "->", and its type parameters are `:'a` and `:'a list`. In the compound type `:bool`, the type constant is "bool", and it has no type parameters.

computer algebra system : (n) A computer program for performing automated mathematical operations on symbolic expressions, but not necessarily in a manner that coherently adheres to a given formal logic. Typical operations supported include factorising arithmetic expressions, differentiation, integration, solving systems of equations, etc. Abbreviated to "CAS". Compare with "theorem prover".

concatenation : (n) The joining together of two items end-to-end.

conclusion : (n) See "sequent".

concrete syntax : (n) 1. A syntax (sense 1) for the input and/or display representation of expressions of a given programming language or formal language. Compare with "abstract syntax". See "parser", "pretty printer". 2. Expressions of a given concrete syntax (sense 1).

condition : (n) See "conditional expression".

conditional : (n) An abbreviation for "conditional expression".

conditional expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, denoting the selection of one of two supplied subterms (called the "branches") depending on the boolean value of an additional subterm (called the "condition"). The first branch (called the "then-branch") is chosen if the condition has value "true", and the second (called the "else-branch") if the condition has value "false". In HOL Zero term quotations, the reserved words "if", "then" and "else" respectively precede the condition, the then-branch and the else-branch subterms to separate them out (as in `if c then t1 else t2`). The internal representation in HOL Zero involves a curried application of the "COND" operator. Also called "if-expression".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following term is a conditional expression: `if x < 2 then x + y else x - y` which has the same internal representation as the following term: `COND (x < 2) (x + y) (x - y)`. The condition is `x < 2`, the then-branch is `x + y` and the else-branch is `x - y`.

conjunction : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, for an application of the conjunction operator to two arguments.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is a conjunction: `x = 2 /\ y > 3` which means "both `x = 2` and `y > 3` are true".

conjunction operator : (n) A binary operator of propositional logic, denoting "true" iff both of its arguments have value "true". In HOL Zero, the conjunction operator has name "/\", which has infix fixity. Also called "and". Compare with "disjunction operator", "implication operator". See "conjunction".

consequent : (n) The RHS of a HOL implication term.

conservative extension : (n) A restricted form of theory extension in which new theory entities and assertions are added to a theory whereby the new assertions do not affect the provability of statements that do not involve the new theory entities. This can be achieved, for example, with an assertion that states that a new entity is equivalent to an expression involving only existing theory entities, as in HOL constant definition. Since the provability of existing statements in the logic is not altered, conservative extension cannot make a logic inconsistent.

constant : (n) 1. A HOL entity for referring to a fixed (but not necessarily determined) value, with scope across the entire HOL theory. A constant has a name and a generic type, and cannot be overloaded with other constants in the theory. Once declared, instances of a constant can be constructed, and the possible values it denotes can be constrained by assertions. See "constant declaration", "constant definition". Compare with "variable" (sense 1). 2. A primitive syntactic category of HOL term, denoting an occurrence of a declared constant. It has a name and a type, where the type may contain type variables. To be well-formed, the name must be the name of a declared constant and the type must match the constant's generic type.

Example: "true" and "=" are both constants in HOL Zero.

constant declaration : (n) A form of declaration for introducing new HOL constants to the HOL language and theory. A constant is declared by supplying a name and a generic type. The name uniquely identifies the constant, and cannot be overloaded with other constants in the theory. The generic type may contain type variables, in which case the constant is polymorphic.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following ML command application: new_const ("=", `:'a->'a->bool`);; declares the equality operator, giving it generic type `:'a->'a->bool`.

constant definition : (n) A form of assertion for defining HOL constants by conservative extension, whereby a new constant is asserted as being equal to a given term, thus determining its value in terms of existing values. The term is not allowed to contain free variables, and may only involve type variables that occur in its top-level type. In HOL Zero primitive constant definition, this term is the command's definition term, whereas in derived constant definition, this term is the RHS of the command's definition term. Compare with "constant specification".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following ML definition command:
prim_new_const_definition ("true", `(\(x:bool). x) = (\x. x)`);;
defines the constant "true", resulting in the definition theorem:
|- true <=> (\(x:bool). x) = (\x. x).

constant specification : (n) A form of assertion for defining HOL constants by conservative extension, whereby a set of new constants is asserted to have a given property, provided a theorem stating that such constants exist. The supplied existential theorem is not allowed to have assumptions or free variables, and may only involve type variables that occur in the generic types of the new constants. Compare with "constant definition".

Example: In HOL Zero, when supplied with the following existential theorem:
val thm1 : thm = |- ?x y. x < 3 /\ y > 1
the following ML primitive definition command:
prim_new_const_specification (["X";"Y"], thm1);;
will result in the following specification theorem:
|- X < 3 /\ Y > 1

constrain : (v) To extend a theory by adding assertions. This limits the possible values that are denoted by the theory's theory entities. Note that if a logic has been constrained so far as to have no assignment of denotable values for its theory entities that satisfies all its assertions, then the logic has become inconsistent. Compare with "extend" (sense 2).

constructivist : (adj) Another name for "intuitionistic".

constructor : (n) 1. An ML function for creating elements of a given datatype from their component parts. 2. An ML syntax function for creating a particular syntactic category of HOL object from component parts.

Example: In HOL Zero, 'mk_eq' is the constructor (sense 2) for HOL equality terms: mk_eq (`x + 3`, `5`);; returns `x + 3 = 5`

conventional type variable : (n) Another name for HOL "type variable", used in the context of type analysis on pretypes, to distinguish from "generated type variable".

conversion : (n) An ML inference rule that takes a HOL term argument and returns an equality theorem with the term argument as its LHS and a transformed version of the term argument as its RHS.

Example: The ML function 'beta_conv' is a conversion: beta_conv `(\x. x + 1) (2 * y)`;; returns the theorem |- (\x. x + 1) (2 * y) = 2 * y + 1

core system : (n) The self-contained initial part of the build for an LCF-style system, that implements all the trusted components of the system and little more. The core system sets up the fundamental mechanisms for constructing language, organising and introducing theory, performing deduction and reading in/displaying quotations. This is implemented by the logical core, the parser and pretty printer and typically a handful of basic utilities. Compare with "base system".

core theory : (n) The self-contained initial theory of an LCF-style system that introduces all theory entities referred to in its language and inference kernels, and any assertions that constrain these entities. All subsequent theory is built on the core theory. See "logical core", "core system".

curried : (adj) Relating to ML or HOL functions that take multiple arguments in series, and for each argument return a function for taking the next argument. Compare with "tupled".

Example: The function "f" in the following term is a curried function, taking arguments "a" and "b": `f a b` This is in fact another way of writing the following term: `(f a) b`.

cyclic : (adj) Relating to any substitution scheme that can be repeatedly applied to certain expressions without terminating. An instantiation list is cyclic iff there is some domain element which occurs free in its own range element, after some number of applications (zero or more) of the instantiation list to its own range elements. A cyclic instantiation list is necessarily not closed. See "instantiation closure".

Example: The following old-to-new instantiation list is cyclic: [ (`x:nat`,`2+y`); (`y:nat`,`1+x`); (`z:nat`,`x:nat`) ] because, for example, it will repeatedly apply to `f x = 0` without terminating: `f x = 0` `f (2+y) = 0` `f (2+(1+x)) = 0` `f (2+(1+(2+y))) = 0` ...

datatype : (n) A type in a typed programming language. Also called "data type". See "abstract datatype", "product datatype", "sum datatype".

De Bruijn criterion : (n) The quality of a theorem prover that, for any theorem proved in the system, is able to create a proof object that can be exported and independently checked by a proof checker, thus boosting the trust that can be put in the theorem. Compare with "LCF approach".

declaration : (n) The process of introducing a new theory entity to the HOL theory, thus extending the theory and the language. Compare with "assertion". See "constant declaration", "type constant declaration".

declare : (v) To make a declaration.

deductive system : (n) The mechanisms for performing formal proof in a given formal logic. It consists of a theory and a set of primitive inference rules, which are used in combination to deduce derived theorems. Deduction is ultimately based purely on the syntactic form of expressions, rather than on the values they denote. Also called "proof system". Compare with "formal semantics". See "formal proof", "formal logic", "logical deduction", "logical soundness", "completeness".

define : (v) To make a definition (sense 1).

definition : (n) 1. Any restricted form of HOL assertion that enforces conservative extension. There are three fundamental forms of HOL definition: constant definition, constant specification and type constant definition. Compare with "axiom" (sense 1). 2. The HOL assertion theorem resulting from a definition.

definition term : (n) The main term input supplied to a HOL constant definition command, used to specify the value of the constant. See "constant definition".

defix : (v) To give an identifier nonfix status in a HOL quotation regardless of the fixity of the entity name referred to by the identifier. In HOL Zero quotations, this is done by prefixing the name with "$", without any white space separating.

Example: The following term refers to entity name "=" defixed from its normal infix setting: `$= a b` which gives the same internal term as `a = b`.

dependently-typed : (adj) 1. Relating to type systems that impose type correctness conditions on expressions not only according to the types of subexpressions, but also according to the values of subexpressions. Determining type correctness of expressions in dependently-typed languages can be an undecidable process. 2. Relating to formal languages or logics that have a dependently-typed type system.

derived : (adj) 1. Relating to components of a formal language or logic that have been defined in terms of other components. Compare with "primitive" (sense 1). 2. Relating to ML functions defined for an abstract datatype, but defined outside the datatype's implementation module, and thus ultimately defined in terms of the datatype's primitive functions. Compare with "primitive" (sense 2).

destructor : (n) 1. An ML function that breaks down elements of a given datatype into their component parts. 2. An ML syntax function for breaking down a particular syntactic category of HOL object into component parts.

Example: In HOL Zero, 'dest_eq' is the destructor (sense 2) for HOL equality terms: dest_eq `x + 3 = 5`;; returns (`x + 3`, `5`)

detype : (v) To remove from a HOL preterm all contextual type information held in its term atoms, leaving just type information explicitly provided in type annotations. Detyping is done during HOL Zero type analysis. Each variable atom is given a unique generated type variable, and each constant atom is given the constant's generic type with any conventional type variables replaced with unique generated type variables.

discriminator : (n) An ML syntax function that is a test function for a HOL object being of a particular syntactic category.

Example: In HOL Zero, 'is_eq' is the discriminator for HOL equality terms: is_eq `x + 3 = 5`;; returns true is_eq `x + 25`;; returns false

disjunction : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, for an application of the disjunction operator to two arguments.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is a disjunction: `x = 2 \/ y > 3` which means "either or both `x = 2` and `y > 3` are true".

disjunction operator : (n) A binary operator of propositional logic, denoting "true" iff at least one of its arguments have value "true". In HOL Zero, the disjunction operator has name "\/", which has infix fixity. Also called "or". Compare with "conjunction operator", "implication operator". See "disjunction".

domain : (n) The elements that a given function maps from. Compare with "range".

domain type : (n) The first type parameter of a HOL function type. Compare with "range type".

Example: The domain type of the HOL type `:'a#'b->bool` is `:'a#'b`.

dynamic lookup tree : (n) An ML representation of a lookup table in a tree data structure that is dynamically optimised for lookup time efficiency, with indexes compared under a total order relation. Multiple entries under the same index are not allowed. Compare with "association list".

EBNF : (n) An abbreviation for "Extended Backus-Naur Form".

Edinburgh LCF : (n) A theorem prover for the LCF logic, developed in the mid 1970s. It is most notable for two key innovations. The first is its robust and extendible software architecture, now known as the "LCF approach", which represented a major advancement in theorem prover design, and has been replicated in many subsequent theorem provers. The second is its implementation language, ML, which was developed specially as the implementation language for Edinburgh LCF, incorporated various innovations, and became a major influence on numerous subsequent programming languages. It was succeeded by Cambridge LCF. See "ML", "LCF approach".

else-branch : (n) See "conditional expression".

entity : (n) A fundamental atomic component of the primitive syntax of a formal language. In HOL there are four kinds of entity: variable, constant, type variable and type constant. See "theory entity".

enumeration : (n) An abbreviation for "enumeration expression".

enumeration expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term in HOL Zero, denoting the formation of a uniform structure (such as a list) from a serial listing of its items. In term quotations, enumerations are written with delimiters at the start and end, indicating the form of the structure, and items in the listing are separated by commas (as in `[t1,t2,t3]`). The internal representation involves repeated application of an insertion operator, inserting each item of the listing into an empty structure. The delimiters used in the quotation representation associate with the specific insertion operator and empty structure constant used in the internal representation, and are declared by the user and then become reserved words of the language.

Example: Lists could defined in HOL Zero with a list insertion operator "CONS" and empty list constant "NIL". A 3-item list enumeration could be written as: `[ a, b, c ]` which would have the same internal representation as: `CONS a (CONS b (CONS c NIL))`.

epsilon : (n) Another name for "Hilbert choice operator".

equality expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, for an application of the equality operator.

Example: In HOL Zero, the term `x + 1 = y + 5` is an equality expression, meaning "`x + 1` has the same value as `y + 5`".

equality operator : (n) A relation fundamental to many formal logics, including the HOL logic, denoting "true" iff its two arguments have the same value. In HOL Zero, the equality operator has name "=", which has infix fixity. Also called "equals". See "logical equivalence operator", "equality expresion".

equality theorem : (n) A HOL theorem where the conclusion is an equality expression.

Example: In HOL Zero a < 1 |- a = 0 is an equality theorem.

eta conversion : (n) A name used in some texts for "eta reduction".

eta reduction : (n) The process of transforming a HOL term that is a lambda expression with a body that is a function application, with the binding variable as the argument subterm and with no free occurrences of the binding variable in the function subterm, by replacing the entire term with the function subterm. Also caled "eta conversion". Compare with "alpha conversion", "beta reduction".

Example: Eta reduction can be performed on the following term: `\x. (\y. y + 2) x` to result in the following term: `(\y. y + 2)`.

Excluded Middle : (n) See "Law of the Excluded Middle".

existential quantifier : (n) A quantifier of predicate logic, denoting "true" iff its body has value "true" for at least one value of its placeholder variable. In HOL Zero, the existential quantifier is a polymorphic constant with name "?", which has binder fixity. Also called "exists". Compare with "unique existential quantifier", "universal quantifier".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is an existential quantification: `?x. y + x < y + 2` which means "there exists an x such that `y + x < y + 2`", which has value "true" (for natural numbers).

extend : (v) 1. To add to the constructs allowed in a formal language. 2. To introduce new theory entities or assertions to a theory. Introducing new theory entities also extends (sense 1) the formal language of the logic, and is done by declaration. Introducing new assertions "constrains" the theory. See "theory extension". 3. To add to the source code of a theorem prover, thus expanding its functionality.

Extended Backus-Naur Form : (n) Any one of various variants of the Backus-Naur Form notation that incorporate additional grammar operators to the classic two of Backus-Naur Form. Such additional operators typically include postfix operator '*' for zero or more occurrences of a given construct, and postfix operator '+' for one or more occurrences of a given construct. Usually abbreviated to "Extended BNF" or "EBNF".

Extended BNF : (n) An abbreviation for "Extended Backus-Naur Form".

first-order : (adj) Relating to formal languages or logics that cater for binders such as quantifiers, but in which functions are fundamentally distinct from basic values and cannot be denoted by binding variables (whereas basic values can). Compare with "higher-order". See "FOL".

fixity : (n) 1. The syntactic status of an identifier, purely with respect to how it is allowed to occur in concrete syntax, and thus how it is treated by the parser and pretty printer. In HOL Zero, there are five fixities: nonfix, prefix, infix, postfix and binder. See "defix". 2. In HOL systems, the syntactic status of an entity name, used to determine the fixity (sense 1) of identifiers for entities with that name. Names have both term fixity and type fixity, which can be assigned independently of each other. Note that the fixity of a name does not affect the internal representation of entities with the name.

Example: In HOL Zero, the name "=" has infix term fixity, the name "!" has binder term fixity, and the name "true" has nonfix term fixity. The name "->" has infix type fixity and the name "bool" has nonfix type fixity.

Flyspeck Project : (n) An international collaborative effort to formalise Tom Hales' proof of the Kepler Conjecture, using the HOL Light theorem prover.

FOL : (n) An abbreviation sometimes used in mathematical logic for "first-order logic", referring to one or more of various first-order formal logics. Compare with "HOL" (sense 2).

formal grammar : (n) A precise description of all the syntax-correct expressions of a given programming language or formal language, consisting of a set of grammar rules and a start symbol. See "recursive descent parser", "BNF", "left recursion", "left factor".

formal language : (n) A precisely defined mathematical language, consisting of a set of well-formed expressions that adhere to a strict syntax and, in typed formal languages, to a type system. The syntax of a formal language is typically captured by a formal grammar. See "formal logic", "formal semantics", "HOL language", "first-order", "higher-order".

formal logic : (n) A formal language together with a deductive system for deriving theorems as statements in the formal language. Some formal logics, such as the HOL logic, also include mechanisms for theory extension. Also called "formal system" in some texts. See "formal proof", "theorem prover", "predicate logic", "HOL logic", "classical", "intuitionistic", "inconsistent", "logical system", "logical framework".

formal proof : (n) 1. A proof performed with respect to a given formal logic, where the statement proved is expressed in the logic's formal language, and its justification is expressed using the logic's deductive system. See "provable". 2. The elaboration of a formal proof (sense 1) in a given theorem prover, resulting in the production of an internal theorem. Compare with "proof script".

Example: Evaluating the following ML expression gives a formal proof (sense 2) in HOL Zero that the logical negation of "true" is "false":
deduct_antisym_rule (spec_rule `~ true` (undisch_rule (eq_imp_rule1 false_def))) (eq_mp_rule (eqf_intro_rule (assume_rule `~ true`)) truth_thm);;
This results in the following theorem:
|- ~ true <=> false

formal semantics : (n) A system for interpreting a formal language, that attributes values to the well-formed expressions of the language. A formal semantics will also define which statements in its formal language hold. See "complete", "sound", "logical system". Compare with "deductive system".

formal system : (n) A name used in some texts for "formal logic".

formal verification : (n) The usage of techniques based on mathematics to verify the correctness of computer software and hardware. In practice, this will typically involve the use of theorem provers.

formalise : (v) To convert a traditional mathematical proof to a formal proof. See "Flyspeck Project".

free occurrence : (n) An occurrence of a HOL term as a subterm within an encompassing HOL term or theorem object, whereby all variables that are free in the subterm are also free in the encompassing object.

Example: The term `x + y` occurs free in the term `P (x + y) \/ true`, but does not occur free in the term `(\x. x + y) x`.

free variable : (n) A HOL variable that occurs within a given HOL term or theorem object and is not bound in that object. The scope of a free variable includes the top level of its term/theorem. Compare with "bound variable".

Example: In the term `x + x + (\u v. u + y + v) x 5`, there are two free variables: "x" and "y".

function : (n) 1. An ML function value. 2. A mathematical object that maps elements from one set (called the "domain") to another (called the "range"). In HOL, a function is a term that has a function type, denoting a mapping from elements of its domain type to elements of its range type. All functions in HOL are total, i.e. they map every element of their domain type to some element of their range type. 3. The first subterm of a HOL function application term.

function application : (n) A primitive syntactic category of HOL term, denoting the value that a given function maps a given argument to. It consists of a "function" subterm and an "argument" subterm. To be well-formed, the function's type must be a function type with domain type equal to the argument's type. The HOL type of the function application term is the function type's range type. In HOL Zero term quotations, a function application is written with a space separating the function and its argument (as in `f x`). The argument is only displayed with surrounding parentheses if it is a compound expression.

Example: The term `sqrt (x + 2)` is an application of function subterm `sqrt` to argument subterm `x + 2`.

function space : (n) A name used in some texts for "function type operator".

function type : (n) A HOL compound type of the function type constant, with two type parameters: the "domain type" and the "range type".

Example: The type `:'a->bool` is a function type, with domain type `:'a` and range type `:bool`. The type `:bool->bool->bool` is a function type, with domain type `:bool` and range type `:bool->bool`.

function type operator : (n) A HOL binary type operator, called "->" in HOL Zero, that is fundamental to the HOL language, for the type of HOL functions. Also called "function space" in some texts.

functional programming language : (n) A programming language with a heavy emphasis on expression evaluation rather than operations upon state, and where functions are values that can be passed as arguments to, and returned as results from, other functions. Functional programming languages typically have a rich expression syntax and advanced type system. The first functional programming languages were Lisp and ML.

F# : (n) A recent dialect of ML, implemented as part of the Microsoft .NET Framework. It is strongly based on OCaml.

generated type variable : (n) A temporary placeholder within a HOL pretype, used during HOL Zero type analysis, for an as-yet-undetermined HOL type. Compare with "conventional type variable".

generic theorem prover : (n) A theorem prover that supports a logical framework, so that it can be configured with a given formal logic. See "Isabelle".

generic type : (n) A HOL type that expresses the most general type that instances of a given HOL constant can have. The generic type may contain type variables, in which case the constant is polymorphic. Any instance of the constant must have a type that matches the constant's generic type. Also called just "type" in some texts. See "constant declaration".

Example: Constant "true" has generic type `:bool`, and constant "=" has generic type `:'a->'a->bool`.

Gentzen-style rule description : (n) A schematic notation for describing a given inference rule by showing the generic form of the rule's output theorem(s) in terms of the syntactic components of the most general form of the rule's inputs. It involves a horizonal line, with rule inputs written above the line and rule outputs written below the line, with letters denoting arbitrary expressions (subject to well-formedness restrictions of the formal language). Any restrictions on the rule inputs are written to the right of the line, in square brackets.

Example: The HOL Zero equality congruence inference rule for lambda abstraction, called 'mk_abs_rule', is described using the following Gentzen-style description:

     `x`   A |- t1 = t2   [ "x" not free in 'A' ]
    ---------------------------------
    A |- (\x. t1) = (\x. t2)

grammar : (n) An abbreviation for "formal grammar".

grammar operator : (n) An operator used in the RHS of a grammar rule, for expressing how subconstructs can combine to form constructs. See "BNF".

grammar rule : (n) A component of a formal grammar, for expressing the possible forms of a particular language construct in terms of sub-constructs. It consists of a LHS, which is the nonterminal symbol for the language construct, and a RHS, which uses a combination of terminal symbols, nonterminal symbols and grammar operators to show the possible forms of the construct. Also called "production rule" in some texts.

grammar symbol : (n) A symbol used in a formal grammar, corresponding to a language construct at some level of the syntax being described. See "terminal symbol", "nonterminal symbol", "start symbol".

higher-order : (adj) Relating to formal languages or logics that cater for binders such as quantifiers, and in which there is no fundamental distinction between functions and other values, thus allowing binding variables to denote functions. Compare with "first-order". See "HOL" (sense 2), "HOL logic".

Hilbert choice operator : (n) An operator that selects an arbitrary element satisfying a given predicate, if there is at least one such element. The existence of such an operator is asserted by the Axiom of Choice. In HOL Zero, the operator is a binder (sense 3) called "@". Also called "choice operator", "select", "epsilon".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following term: `@x. x > 2 /\ x < 5` has value `3` or `4`, and this is provable, although it is not possible to prove which of these two values it has.

HOL : (n) 1. An abbreviation used in theorem proving for either the HOL language or the HOL logic. See "HOL family". 2. An abbreviation sometimes used in mathematical logic for "higher-order logic", referring to one or more of various higher-order formal logics. The HOL logic is one such example. Compare with "FOL". (adj) 3. Relating to the HOL language, the HOL logic or the HOL family.

HOL family : (n) The family of theorem provers that implement the HOL logic or a logic closely based on the HOL logic. The HOL family started in the 1980s with the prototype Cambridge HOL system. It has since expanded to include HOL88, HOL90, HOL98, HOL4, ProofPower HOL, GTT, HOL Light, Isabelle/HOL, HOL-Omega and HOL Zero. All of these systems are implemented in ML and all use the LCF approach. They all implement the HOL logic, except Isabelle/HOL and HOL-Omega which implement their own variants of the HOL logic. They each have their own (but equivalent) primitive deductive system and mechanisms for theory extension. And they each have their own variant of HOL language concrete syntax. There is considerable variation in their support for interactive and automated theorem proving.

HOL language : (n) The formal language used in the HOL logic. It is captured by its notions of well-formed types and terms and its theory entities. The set of theory entities in HOL is extendible, by a process called declaration. See "term" (sense 1), "type" (sense 1).

HOL Light : (n) A contemporary HOL theorem prover, that evolved from the embryonic GTT system in the mid 1990s. It has a simple core system, and yet has an extensive library of mathematical theory, and is the main theorem prover used in the Flyspeck Project. It is implemented in OCaml, using the LCF approach. See "HOL family".

HOL logic : (n) The formal logic implemented by the Cambridge HOL system, its successors and various other members of the HOL family of theorem provers. It is a classical, higher-order predicate logic based on Church's typed lambda calculus. Its type system interprets types as sets, and supports a simple form of parametric polymorphism that does not cater for type quantifiers or axiomatic type classes, and is non-dependently typed. Its deductive system has various equivalent formulations, but was originally formulated with 5 axioms and 8 primitive inference rules. It also supports theory extension through its mechanisms for primitive declaration and primitive assertion. It was originally designed in the early 1980s as the logic for the Cambridge HOL system. HOL is an abbreviation for "Higher Order Logic". See "HOL language", "HOL-Omega", "Isabelle/HOL".

HOL-Omega : (n) A variant of the HOL4 theorem prover that supports its own variant of the HOL logic. This variant logic has a type system that caters for type quantifiers, enabling a larger proportion of mathematical theory to be expressed. See "HOL family".

HOL Zero : (n) A contemporary HOL theorem prover, implemented from scratch in the late 2000s and early 2010s, primarily for use as a proof checker in black-box proof auditing. It is a basic system that concentrates on simplicity, trustworthiness and clarity of implementation. It is implemented in OCaml, using the LCF approach. See "HOL family".

HOL4 : (n) A contemporary HOL theorem prover, and the latest in the direct lineage tracing back to the Cambridge HOL system. It was first produced in the 2000s as a development of the HOL98 system. It has an extensive theory library and has been used in various formal verification projects. It is implemented in SML, using the LCF approach. See "HOL family".

HOL88 : (n) A HOL theorem prover developed in the late 1980s from the Cambridge HOL system, and the first public release of a HOL system. It is implemented in Classic ML, using the LCF approach. It was succeeded by HOL90. See "HOL family".

HOL90 : (n) A HOL theorem prover, developed in the early/mid 1990s as the successor to the HOL88 system, reimplemented in SML. Its original release retained HOL88's functionality and LCF-style architecture, but with various aspects of the implementation rationalised. It was succeeded by HOL98. See "HOL family".

HOL98 : (n) A HOL theorem prover, developed in the late 1990s as the successor to HOL90. Its core system represented a major architectural redesign, making it more suitable for large-scale applications. It is implemented in SML, using the LCF approach. It was succeeded by HOL4. See "HOL family".

hypothesis : (n) A name used in some texts for "assumption".

identifier : (n) A lexical token for referring to an entity by its name. In HOL Zero, constant, variable and type constant identifiers have fixity, and this is determined by the fixity of the corresponding entity name (unless the identifier carries a defixing mark). HOL Zero caters for identifier quoting and variable marking, to enable type and term quotations unambiguously refer to entities. Compare with "reserved word".

identifier quoting : (n) A mechanism used in HOL Zero identifiers, whereby an identifier may have outer double-quote characters around the entity name it is referring to, enabling irregular names and names that clash with reserved words to be clearly expressed.

if-expression : (n) Another name for "conditional expression".

iff : (n) Shorthand used in mathematics for "if and only if".

ill-formed : (adj) The opposite of "well-formed".

image : (n) A name used in some texts for "range".

implication : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, for an application of the implication operator to two arguments.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is an implication: `x = 2 ==> y > 3` which means "`x = 2` is true implies that `y > 3` is true". The antecedent is `x = 2` and the consequent is `y > 3`.

implication operator : (n) A binary operator of propositional logic, denoting "false" iff its LHS argument has value "true" and its RHS argument has value "false". The LHS argument is called the "antecedent", and the RHS argument is called the "consequent". In HOL Zero, the implication operator has name "==>", which has infix fixity. Also called "implies". Compare with "conjunction operator", "disjunction operator". See "implication".

incomplete : (adj) The opposite of "complete", i.e. relating to a logical system where there exist statements that hold according to its formal semantics but that cannot be proved in its formal logic. Godel's First Incompleteness Theorem states that any logical system that encompases natural number theory is incomplete. Compare with "unsound".

inconsistent : (adj) The undesirable quality of a formal logic for which any statement can be proved. An inconsistent logic is useless. In logics based on propositional logic, falsity can be used to prove any statement, and thus it is sufficient to prove falsity within any such logic to establish that the logic is inconsistent. Adding axioms to a theory can potentially introduce inconsistency to the logic if not done carefully, but not if conservative extension is used. See "unsound".

inference kernel : (n) The part of an LCF-style system that implements the deductive system of its formal logic, and relied upon by all subsequent deductive functionality for its soundness. It defines the datatype for internal theorems as an abstract datatype, with the primitive inference rules and the primitive assertion commands as its only primitive constructors. The inference kernel is a crucial trusted component of its system. See "language kernel", "logical core", "core system".

inference rule : (n) 1. A mechanism for performing a deductive step in a formal logic. An inference rule takes a number of theorem and/or expression inputs, and returns one or more theorems, ultimately based on some syntactic transformation of the inputs. See "Gentzen-sytle rule description". 2. An ML function in a theorem prover that implements an inference rule (sense 1) of its formal logic. In LCF-style systems, inference rules return internal theorems, and are ultimately implemented in terms of primitive inference rules.

Example: The Modus Ponens inference rule, implemented as 'mp_rule' in HOL Zero, takes a first theorem that has an implication as its conclusion, and a second theorem with a conclusion that is alpha-equivalent to the antecedent of the first theorem. It returns a theorem with the first theorem's consequent as its conclusion, and with the unioned assumptions of the two theorems. This is captured by the following Gentzen-style rule description:

    A1 |- p ==> q   A2 |- p
    -------------------------------------- mp_rule
      A1 u A2 |- q

infix : (n) 1. A fixity for HOL constant, variable and type constant identifiers, for binary functions, where the function identifier is written in between its two arguments (as in `t1 op t2`). In HOL Zero, infix operators bind less tightly than prefix but more tightly than binder, and have a precedence to determine which of two infix operators binds more tightly. (adj) 2. Relating to HOL constants, variables or type constants whose name has infix fixity. See "infix expression".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following names have infix term fixity: "=", "/\", "\/", "==>", "+", "-", "*", "<", etc.

infix expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, denoting the application of an infix operator to two arguments. In term quotations, this is written with the operator between the arguments (as in `t1 op t2`). The internal representation is a curried function application of the operator applied to its first argument followed by its second argument.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following term is an infix expression: `~ p /\ q` (meaning "the conjunction of `~ p` and `q`") This is an application of the conjunction operator "/\" to the arguments `~ p` and `q`.

instantiation : (n) A restricted form of HOL substitution according to an instantiation list, for replacing free variables or type variables in a given HOL object. All free occurrences of the instantiation list's domain elements in the HOL object get replaced with their corresponding range elements. See "type instantiation", "variable instantiation".

Example: Using old-to-new instantation list [(`x:nat`,`3+z`);(`y:nat`,`5`)] to instantiate the following term: `x + y + x + z` results in the following term: `(3+z) + 5 + (3+z) + z`.

instantiation closure : (n) The process of making an instantiation list closed, ensuring that none of its domain elements occur free in its range elements, and raising an error if any cyclic instantiations exist.

Example: The instantiation closure of the old-to-new instantiation list [(`x:nat`,`y + w`);(`y:nat`,`z:nat`)] results in the instantiation list: [(`x:nat`,`z + w`);(`y:nat`,`z:nat`)].

instantiation list : (n) An ML list for use as a substitution scheme in HOL instantiation, that is used as a function for mapping given HOL variables or type variables to given new values. Instantiation lists in HOL Zero take the form of an old-to-new association list. See "closed", "cyclic", "instantiation closure".

Example: The old-to-new instantiation list [(`x:nat`,`3 + z`);(`y:nat`,`5`)] maps variable "x" to `3 + z` and variable "y" to `5`.

internal representation : (n) The primary representation of data used in a computer program, that core operations are ultimately performed on, as opposed to other representations suitable for other purposes such as input, display or transmission of data. HOL Zero uses ML abstract datatypes to enforce a notion of well-formedness on its internal representation of HOL objects. See "abstract syntax", "internal type", "internal term", "internal theorem".

internal term : (n) The ML internal representation of a HOL term, and element of the ML abstract datatype for such, called 'term' in HOL Zero. In HOL Zero, the internal term datatype is an ML sum datatype, with classes that directly correspond to the primitive syntactic categories of HOL term. The primitive constructors for internal terms ensure that only well-formed terms can be constructed. Compare with "term quotation", "preterm". See "language kernel".

internal theorem : (n) The ML internal representation of a HOL theorem, and element of the ML abstract datatype for such, called 'thm' in HOL Zero. In HOL Zero, an internal theorem is an ML pair consisting of a list of assumption terms and a conclusion term. The primitive constructors for internal theorems are the system's primitive inference rules and the primitive assertion commands, thus ensuring that all deduction and assertion must ultimately be carried out in terms of these commands. Compare with "theorem quotation". See "inference kernel".

internal type : (n) The ML internal representation of a HOL type, and element of the ML abstract datatype for such, called 'hol_type' in HOL Zero. In HOL Zero, the internal type datatype is a sum datatype, with classes that directly correspond to the primitive syntactic categories of HOL type. The primitive constructors for internal types ensure that only well-formed types can be constructed. Compare with "type quotation", "pretype". See "language kernel".

intuitionistic : (adj) Relating to formal logics that encompass propositional logic but not the Law of the Excluded Middle, thus precluding proof by contradiction and the Axiom of Choice. Also called "constructivist" in some texts. Compare with "classical".

irregular : (adj) The opposite of "regular", i.e. relating to entity names in HOL Zero that do not conform to one of the three basic lexical classes for entity names (alphanumeric, numeric and symbolic).

Isabelle : (n) A contemporary generic theorem prover, developed from the mid 1980s onwards. Its main development focus has been on its configuration for the HOL logic, called Isabelle/HOL. It is implemented in SML, using the LCF approach but at the meta-logical rather than logical level.

Isabelle/HOL : (n) The Isabelle generic theorem prover configured with its own variant of the HOL logic. This variant differs from the HOL logic in that it caters for axiomatic type classes. Isabelle/HOL is the main configuration of Isabelle, and has become the predominant HOL theorem prover. It has an extensive theory library and relatively-advanced user interface facilities, and has been used on a variety of formal verification projects, as well as playing a role in the Flyspeck Project. See "HOL family".

Kepler Conjecture : (n) A 400-year-old mathematical conjecture of geometry, about optimal sphere packing. It was unsolved until 1998, when Tom Hales completed a proof involving 300 pages of mathematical text and three large computer programs. The proof was controversial due to its complex detail and difficulty in assessing its correctness. See "Flyspeck Project".

kernel : (n) An abbreviation for "inference kernel".

lambda abstraction : (n) A primitive syntactic category of HOL term, denoting an anonymous function that maps its argument to a value according to a given expression. It takes the form of a binding, consisting of a "binding variable" subterm and a "body" subterm, where the binding variable acts as a placeholder for the function's argument, and the body is an expression that constructs the value the argument maps to, expressed in terms of the binding variable. A lambda abstraction bounds the scope of its binding variable to the body. There is no requirement that the binding variable has to occur in the body. In HOL, lambda abstraction is the only primitive means of bounding variable scope, and all binder expressions are ultimately expressed in terms of lambda abstraction. The HOL type of a lambda abstraction is a function type, with the binding variable's type as its domain type and the body's type as its range type. In HOL Zero term quotations, a lambda abstraction is written starting with the reserved word "\", followed by the binding variable, followed by the reserved word ".", followed by the body (as in `\x. y`). Also called "lambda expression" in some texts. See "lambda calculus".

Example: `\x. x + 1` is a lambda abstraction, and has binding variable "x" and body `x + 1`. It denotes a function that takes a natural number argument and returns the argument plus 1.

lambda calculus : (n) A formal logic for functions. Its language includes the notion of lambda abstraction, for constructing anonymous functions. Lambda calculus was first developed by Alonzo Church in the 1930s. The HOL logic is based on a typed variant of lambda calculus.

lambda expression : (n) Another name for "lambda abstraction".

language kernel : (n) The part of an LCF-style system that implements the internal representation of its formal language, and that enforces a notion of well-formedness on the language. In HOL systems, the language kernel defines the datatypes for internal types and terms, together with the mechanisms for declaring HOL constants and type constants. The language kernel is a trusted component of its system. See "inference kernel", "logical core", "core system".

Law of the Excluded Middle : (n) A crucial theorem of classical logics, distinguishing them from intuitionistic logics. It states that, for any statement, either the statement or its logical negation holds. This precludes the possibility of a third boolean value (other than "true" and "false"). The Law of the Excluded Middle can be derived from the Axiom of Choice, and is a derived theorem called 'excluded_middle_thm' in HOL Zero.

This is the Law of the Excluded Middle in HOL Zero: |- !p. p \/ ~ p

LCF approach : (n) A software architecture for building theorem provers that can be used with any strongly-typed programming language that supports abstract datatypes (such as ML). It has two key characteristics. This first is taking advantage of strong datatyping to enforce a robust inference kernel, by having an abstract datatype for the internal representation of theorems, with the primitive inference rules and primitive assertion commands of the logic's deductive system as the only primitive constructors of the datatype. The second is allowing the user or programmer to arbitrarily extend the source code of the system, to implement their own derived (senses 1 & 2) inference rules, assertion commands or any other functionality. This architecture guarantees that any such source code extensions cannot make the system logically unsound, thus boosting the trustworthiness of the system. In classic interaction with such systems, proof scripts are written in the implementaton language of the system, and are effectively source code extensions of the system. This architecture was invented for the Edinburgh LCF system, but has since been used in various other systems, including the entire HOL family. Compare with "De Bruijn criterion". See "black-box proof auditing".

LCF logic : (n) A higher-order logic based on typed lambda calculus, with types interpreted as Scott domains, for the purposes of reasoning about recursively-defined functions. It was developed in the early 1970s, and used as the logic for a family of theorem provers called the "LCF family". LCF is an abbreviation for "Logic for Computable Functions". See "Edinburgh LCF", "Cambridge LCF".

LCF-style : (adj) Relating to theorem provers implemented using the LCF approach.

left-associative : (adj) Relating to infix functions that syntactically group compounded LHS arguments when written without brackets in concrete syntax. Compare with "right-associative", "non-associative". See "associativity".

Example: In HOL Zero, the "+" function is left-associative, so: `a + b + c + d + e` is the same term as: `(((a + b) + c) + d) + e`

left factor : (n) A common initial sequence of grammar symbols in two or more branches in the expansion of a grammar rule RHS. Recursive descent parsers that transparently implement a grammar with left factors may require more backtracking than if the grammar were transformed to have no left factors. Compare with "left recursion".

left recursion : (n) The existence of a grammar rule's LHS symbol as the first symbol in at least one branch of the expansion of its RHS. Grammars with left recursion are problematic for recursive descent parsers that transparently implement their grammar, because the parser can get stuck in a non-terminating loop that does not advance beyond the first item in its source. It is possible to transform a formal grammar with left recursion into one that is equivalent but without left recursion. Compare with "left factor". See "left-recursive".

Example: The following formal grammar for simple arithmetic expressions has left recursion: expr0 = Numeral | "(" expr ")" expr = expr0 | expr "+" expr | expr "*" expr because "expr" is a possible first symbol for itself. This can be transformed to an equivalent grammar without left recursion: expr0 = Numeral | "(" expr ")" expr = expr0 | expr0 "+" expr | expr0 "*" expr

left-recursive : (adj) Relating to formal grammars that have left recursion.

let-binding : (n) See "let-expression".

let-body : (n) See "let-expression".

let-expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, denoting the introduction of local placeholder variables with assigned values to a subterm. Each placeholder variable assignment is called a "let-binding", and the subterm to which these apply is called the "let-body". In HOL Zero term quotations, it is written with the reserved word "let", followed by a non-empty series of "and" -separated let-bindings, followed by "in", followed by the let-body (as in `let x = t1 and y = t2 in t3`). The internal representation in HOL Zero involves a series of applications of the "LET" operator.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following term is a let-expression: `let x = 5 and y = 4 in x + y` which has the same internal representation as the following term: `LET (LET (\x y. x + y) 5) 4`.

lexer : (n) A parser (sense 2) for performing lexical analysis. Also called "lexical analyser" in some texts.

lexical analyser : (n) Another name for "lexer".

lexical analysis : (n) An early stage of parsing, performed before syntax analysis, for breaking a string down into a list of lexical tokens, according to a formal language's lexical syntax. See "lexer".

lexical class : (n) A category of lexical token. See "alphanumeric", "numeric", "symbolic".

lexical syntax : (n) The structure of well-formed lexical tokens in a programming language or formal language. See "lexical analysis".

lexical token : (n) A grouping of adjacent text characters in a string, that acts as a unit for the purposes of syntax analysis. Often abbreviated to "token". See "lexical analysis", "lexical class", "identifier", "reserved word".

LHS : (n) Left-hand side (of a binary function application). Compare with "RHS".

logic : (n) An abbreviation for "formal logic".

logical : (adj) 1. Relating to a formal logic or logical system. 2. Relating specifically to aspects of propositional logic, for example "logical equivalence", "logical negation".

logical core : (n) The minimal encapsulation of a formal logic in a theorem prover, capturing its formal language, deductive system and mechanisms for assertion. In LCF-style systems, this is implemented by the system's language kernel, inference kernel and core theory. See "core system".

logical deduction : (n) The process of performing formal proof according to a given deductive system, using the inference rules of the deductive system.

logical equivalence : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, for an application of the equality operator to boolean arguments.

Example: In HOL Zero, the term `a < b <=> b > 5` is a logical equivalence term, meaning "`a < b` if and only if `b > 5`".

logical equivalence operator : (n) A binary operator of propositional logic, denoting "true" iff both its arguments have the same boolean value. In HOL, there is no specific logical equivalence operator as such - a type instance of the equality operator for boolean arguments is used instead. HOL Zero uses "<=>" as an alias for this type instance. See "logical equivalence".

logical framework : (n) A framework for defining formal logics, consisting of a meta-language for expressing inference rules, and a deductive system for deriving inference rules as statements of the meta-language. See "generic theorem prover".

logical negation : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, for an application of the logical negation operator.

Example: In HOL Zero, the term `~ (x = 5)` is a logical negation term, meaning "it is not true that `x = 5`".

logical negation operator : (n) A unary operator of propositional logic, denoting the opposite boolean value of its argument. In HOL Zero, the logical negation operator has name "~", which has prefix fixity. Also called "not". See "logical negation".

logical soundness : (n) The quality of a logical system, or an implementation of its formal logic in a theorem prover, that is sound. Often abbreviated to "soundness". Compare with "parser soundness", "printer soundness", "completeness". See "system soundness".

logical system : (n) A formal logic together with a formal semantics for interpreting its formal language. See "sound", "complete".

logical unsoundness : (n) A flaw in a logical system, or in the implementation of its formal logic in a theorem prover, that causes it to be unsound. Often abbreviated to "unsoundness". Compare with "parser unsoundness", "printer unsoundness".

lookup table : (n) A store of data as a collection of entries that can be looked up under an index. See "association list", "dynamic lookup tree".

match : (n) 1. See "matching". (v) 2. See "matching".

matching : (n) The process of determining whether the variables or type variables in one HOL object (called the "pattern") can be instantiated to make it equal to a second object (called the "match"), and if so then resulting in an instantiation list for doing this. If such an instantiation is possible, then the match object is said to "match" the pattern object. The match object may itself involve variables or type variables.

Example: Matching the pattern `y * (x + 3)` to the match `5 * (2*a + 3)` results in the following old-to-new instantiation list: [(`y:nat`,`5`);(`x:nat`,`2*a`)].

mathematical logic : (n) A subject at the intersection of mathematics and philosophy, concerned with the study of valid deduction. Mathematical logic underpins the subject of theorem proving as well as helping to provide a foundation for mathematics and reasoned argument.

ML : (n) A functional programming language with a strongly-typed type system that supports parametric polymorphism and abstract datatypes. ML was originally created as the implementation language for the Edinburgh LCF theorem prover, and was subsequently used in many LCF-style theorem provers, including all existing members of the HOL family. It was the first programming language to cater for parametric polymorphism. The classic way to program and to use ML programs is in an ML session with an ML toplevel. The name "ML" is an abbreviation for "Meta Language". See "Classic ML", "SML", "OCaml", "F#".

ML session : (n) A sequence of interaction between an ML user (be it an ML programmer or an end-user) and an ML toplevel. This is the classic means of both writing ML programs and of using programs written in ML. In LCF-style theorem provers implemented in ML, this is also the classic way of constructing a proof script.

ML toplevel : (n) A program that implements the ML programming language by maintaining an ML session. From a given session state, it awaits user input in the form of an ML phrase. Once inputted, this phrase is then interpreted and executed by the toplevel, potentially updating the session state, and resulting in output that gets displayed to the user. The toplevel is then ready for further ML phrase input from the user. An ML phrase input can be either an ML definition, an ML expression or an ML directive. Definitions add to the ML program accumulated in the session. Expressions are evaluated, which involves executing parts of the accumulated ML program to result in an output value and, potentially, updated values in the ML program state. Directives make other changes to the ML session, such loading pretty printers, disabling warnings, etc. Also called "read-eval-print loop".

name closure : (n) A notion used in HOL Zero term quotations, that enables variable overloading to be expressed. For a given variable name in a given HOL term, a point of name closure is any subterm of the term at which any variable with the given name becomes bound, plus the top level of the term if any variable with the given name is free in the term. Compare with "variable closure".

Example: The following term has 4 variables named "x":
`(x:'c)=x /\ (x:'d)=x /\ (!(x:'b). ?(x:'a). (x:'b)=x /\ (x:'a)=x)`.
There are 3 points of name closure for the name "x": the existential quantification, the universal quantification and the entire term.

new-for-old : (adj) Relating to substitution schemes in the form of an ML association list mapping old HOL subtypes/subterms to new, whereby the first component of each pair in the list is the new subtype/subterm, and the second component is the old one it replaces. Compare with "old-to-new".

non-associative : (adj) Relating to infix functions that do not syntactically group compounded arguments when written without brackets in concrete syntax. Compare with "left-associative", "right-associative". See "associativity".

Example: In HOL Zero, the "<=>" function is non-associative, so: `a <=> b <=> c <=> d <=> e` is not a syntax-correct term, because brackets are needed to group arguments.

non-variable type : (n) A name used in other HOL systems for "compound type".

nonfix : (n) 1. A fixity for HOL constant, variable and type constant identifiers with no special syntactic status, for no-argument entities and classic (potentially curried) function application. Nonfix is the default fixity for names that have not been explicitly assigned a fixity. In HOL Zero, nonfix operators bind more tightly than operators with any other fixiy. See "defix". (adj) 2. Relating to HOL constants, variables or type constants whose name has nonfix fixity.

Example: In HOL Zero, "bool" has nonfix type fixity and so is written `:bool`; and "TYPE_DEFINITION" has nonfix term fixity, and so is written `TYPE_DEFINITION P rep`.

nonterminal symbol : (n) A grammar symbol for representing a given language construct that can be expanded to a sequence of grammar symbols, as described by a given grammar rule. Also called "syntactic variable" in some texts. Compare with "terminal symbol". See "start symbol".

numeric : (n) 1. A lexical class in HOL Zero, starting with a digit character, and followed by zero or more digits or underscores. (adj) 2. Relating to the lexical class numeric.

object : (n) A HOL type, term or theorem. Not to be confused with "proof object".

OCaml : (n) A dialect of the ML programming language that has become the predominant ML dialect. OCaml heavily influenced the development of the .NET language F#. It is the programming language used to implement HOL Zero and HOL Light. Compare with "SML".

occur in : (v) To have at least one occurrence in a given HOL object.

occur free in : (v) To have at least one free occurrence in a given HOL object.

occurrence : (n) The appearance of a given HOL entity or expression as a subexpression of a given HOL object. See "free occurrence".

old-to-new : (adj) Relating to substitution schemes in the form of an ML association list mapping old HOL subtypes/subterms to new, whereby the first component of each pair in the list is the old subtype/subterm being replaced, and the second component is the new one replacing it. HOL Zero uses old-to-new substitution schemes. Compare with "new-for-old".

overloading : (n) The existence of two entities that have the same name but different other attributes and that are visible in the same context. Different kinds of entity are allowed to be overloaded in HOL, for example a constant can be overloaded with a variable. Also, variables are allowed to be overloaded with other variables (so long as they have different types). Other HOL systems allow aliases for constants to be overloaded, but this is not permitted in HOL Zero.

Example: The two variables called "x" in the following term are overloaded: `x <=> (x = (x:'a))` (the first "x" has type `:bool` and the second "x" has type `:'a`).

pair : (n) 1. An ML two-component tuple. 2. A HOL term that has a product type. 3. An abbreviation for "pair expression".

Example: In the following term, both sides of the equality are pairs: `x = (a,b)`

pair expression : (n) A syntactic category of HOL term, denoting the construction a pair (sense 2) from its two components. In HOL Zero term quotations, it is written with components separated by commas and surrounded by parentheses (as in `(t1,t2)`). The internal representation involves an application of the pairing function, which in HOL Zero is called "PAIR".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following term is a pair expression: `(x + y, true)`, which has the same internal representation as the following: `PAIR (x+y) true`.

parametric polymorphism : (n) The ability of a type system to cater for entities that can be used for a family of types, by the use of type variables. Such entities are given a polymorphic type (i.e. one that involves type variables) and a generic definition, and instances of the entity (i.e. where the type variables are instantiated) all necessarily behave in the same way according to the generic definition, thus saving on giving definitions for each instance. Furthermore, in formal logics with such a type system, any theorems that can be proved about a polymorphic theory entity can be instantiated to be about any instance of the theory entity, thus saving on re-proving these theorems for each instance. The HOL logic's type system supports a simple form of parametric polymorphism that does not cater for type quantifiers or axiomatic type classes, although HOL-Omega's and Isabelle/HOL's variants of the logic respectively do. Called simply "polymorphism" in mathematical logic. Compare with "ad-hoc polymorphism". See "HOL logic", "ML".

parser : (n) 1. A component of a program, for taking concrete syntax input in a given programming language or formal language, checking it for well-formedness and converting it into abstract syntax. In HOL systems, there are parsers for converting HOL type and term quotations into internal types and terms respectively. In HOL Zero, parsing uses pretypes and preterms as intermediate representations, and breaks down into four main stages: lexical analysis, syntax analysis, type analysis and pretype/preterm conversion. Compare with "pretty printer". See "core system". 2. A component of a parser (sense 1), for processing input from a source, according to a grammar. Lexers and syntax parsers are both examples of such. See "recursive descent parser". 3. A name used in some texts for "syntax parser". 4. A name used in some texts for "reader function".

parser combinator : (n) A name used in some texts for "reader combinator".

parser completeness : (n) The quality of a parser (sense 1) for which every well-formed expression has a quotation representation that gets successfully parsed to an internal representation. Compare with "printer completeness", "printer-parser completeness", "parser soundness".

parser soundness : (n) The quality of a parser (sense 1) that only accepts well-formed quotations as input, and that only parses to a faithful internal representation. Compare with "printer soundness", "parser completeness".

parser unsoundness : (n) A flaw in the design or implementation of a parser (sense 1) that enables an ill-formed quotation to be accepted as input, or a well-formed quotation to be parsed to an internal representation that is not faithful. Compare with "printer unsoundness", "logical unsoundness".

pattern : (n) See "matching".

polymorphic : (adj) 1. Relating to type systems that cater for some kind of polymorphism. 2. Relating to programming languages, formal languages or formal logics that have a polymorphic type system. 3. In mathematical logic, relating specifically to parametric polymorphism. 4. Relating to entities or objects in a typed programming language or formal language that involve type variables, for the purposes of parametric polymorphism.

polymorphism : (n) 1. A general concept in programming language theory, whereby a given identifier may be associated with more than one type. Two different kinds of this are parametric polymorphism and ad-hoc polymorphism. 2. The name used in mathematical logic for "parametric polymorphism".

postfix : (n) 1. A fixity for HOL constant and variable identifiers, for unary functions, where the function identifier is written immediately after its argument. In HOL Zero, postfix operators bind more tightly than those with any other fixity other than nonfix. (adj) 2. Relating to HOL constants or variables whose name has postfix fixity.

Example: If "**" is a unary function with postfix fixity, then `f x **` means "**" applied to "f x" (for some nonfix function "f" and argument "x").

precedence : (n) A number associated with identifiers of some fixities, for determining how tightly a given identifier binds in concrete syntax. Identifiers with higher precedences bind more tightly. See "infix".

predicate : (n) A function, in a formal language, that returns boolean values.

predicate logic : (n) Any formal logic that encompasses propositional logic and also caters for predicates and quantification over values.

prefix : (n) 1. A fixity for HOL constant and variable identifiers, for unary functions, where the function identifier is written immediately before the argument (as in `f t`). In HOL Zero, prefix operators bind less tightly than postfix but more tightly than infix. A prefix expression is similar to a nonfix function application, except in that it cannot be curried, it binds less tightly and compound applications do not require brackets (as in `f f x`). (adj) 2. Relating to a HOL constant or variable whose name has prefix fixity.

Example: In HOL Zero, the name of the logical negation operator, "~", has prefix fixity, and so `~ P x` means the application of "~" to `P x` (if "P" is nonfix).

preterm : (n) An ML intermediate representation of a HOL term between its quotation and internal representations, and element of the ML datatype for such, called 'preterm' in HOL Zero. Preterms have similar well-formedness restrictions as the internal terms they map onto, but, unlike for internal terms, these restrictions are not enforced by their constructors. This makes preterms ideally suited to the processing required during parsing and pretty printing, where types and constants are resolved. In HOL Zero, preterms have an extra class for type annotations, as well as the four classes from internal terms. Compare with "term quotation", "internal term". See "syntax analysis", "type analysis".

preterm conversion : (n) The process of converting a HOL preterm into an internal term. For this to be successful, the preterm must be well-formed. See "parser" (sense 1).

pretty printer : (n) A component of a program for taking abstract syntax and converting it into concrete syntax suitable for display. In HOL systems, there is a pretty printer for each of internal HOL types, terms and theorems, respectively displaying them as type, term and theorem quotations. The theorem pretty printer is a trusted component of its system, since the user will normally rely on it to determine what has been proved and what has been asserted. Compare with "parser" (sense 1). See "core system".

pretype : (n) An ML intermediate representation of a HOL type between its quotation and internal representations, and element of the ML datatype for such, called 'pretype' in HOL Zero. Pretypes are also used in preterms. Like preterms, pretypes do not have well-formedness restrictions enforced, and are ideally suited to the processing required during parsing and pretty printing. In HOL Zero, pretypes have an extra class for generated type variables (in addition to the two classes from internal types), that acts as a temporary placeholder for types that are yet to be worked out. Compare with "type quotation", "internal type". See "syntax analysis", "type analysis".

pretype conversion : (n) The process of converting a HOL pretype into an internal type. For this to be successful, the pretype must be well-formed. See "parser" (sense 1).

primitive : (adj) 1. Relating to fundamental components of a formal language or logic, that have not been defined in terms of other components. Compare with "derived" (sense 1). 2. Relating to ML functions defined for an abstract datatype, and defined within the datatype's implementation module, and thus with full access to the datatype's raw structure and without any well-formedness restrictions enforced. Compare with "derived" (sense 2).

primitive assertion command : (n) An ML command for performing assertion in an LCF-style system, that acts as a primitive constructor for the system's internal theorem datatype. See "inference kernel". Compare with "primitive inference rule" (sense 2).

primitive constructor : (n) See "abstract datatype".

primitive destructor : (n) See "abstract datatype".

primitive inference rule : (n) 1. An inference rule in a given formal logic, that is primitive to the logic. 2. An ML inference rule in an LCF-style system, that acts as a primitive constructor for the system's internal theorem datatype. Note that the primitive inference rules (sense 2) of an LCF-style system at least include all the primitive inference rules (sense 1) of its logic, but, for efficiency reasons, may also include some derivable inference rules of the logic (but there are no such derivable primitive inference rules in HOL Zero). See "inference kernel". Compare with "primitive assertion command".

primitive syntax : (n) 1. The syntax (sense 1) of a given formal language represented in terms of fundamental abstract constructs. See "abstract syntax", "concrete syntax", "term" (sense 1), "type" (sense 1). 2. Expressions of a given primitive syntax (sense 1).

printer : (n) An abbreviation for "pretty printer".

printer completeness : (n) The quality of a pretty printer that always successfully outputs a quotation representation for any well-formed expression. Compare with "printer-parser completeness", "parser completeness", "printer soundness".

printer-parser completeness : (n) The quality of a parser (sense 1) in combination with a given pretty printer, whereby the parser successfully parses any quotations outputted by the pretty printer. Compare with "parser completeness", "printer completeness".

printer soundness : (n) The quality of a pretty printer that only outputs an unambiguous and faithful quotation representation of a given well-formed expression. Compare with "parser soundness", "printer completeness". See "system soundness".

printer unsoundness : (n) A flaw in the design or implementation of a pretty printer that allows an outputted quotation representation of some well-formed expression to be ambiguous or not faithful. Compare with "parser unsoundness", "logical unsoundness".

product datatype : (n) An ML composite datatype whose elements each break down into a fixed number of subcomponents. Tuple and record datatypes are product datatypes. Compare with "sum datatype".

product type : (n) A HOL compound type of the product type operator (called "#" in HOL Zero), with two type parameters. This denotes the cartesian product of the type parameters. Pair expressions have a product type.

production rule : (n) A name used in some texts for "grammar rule".

programming language theory : (n) A subject of computer science, concerned with the study of computer programming languages.

proof : (n) 1. A rigorous justification that a mathematical statement holds. See "theorem" (sense 3). 2. An abbreviation for "formal proof" (senses 1 & 2).

proof assistant : (n) A name used in some texts for "theorem prover".

proof auditing : (n) The human process of checking that a given proof script correctly proves what is intended to be proved. This can be aided by the use of a proof checker, to mitigate against doubts about the logical soundness or the printer soundness of the original system used to create the proof. For LCF-style systems, a simplified form of proof auditing called "black-box proof auditing" may be used.

proof auditor : (n) A person who carries out proof audits.

proof checker : (n) A computer program for checking that proofs performed in a given formal logic (typically produced by using another computer program, such as a theorem prover) correctly adhere to the logic. Such software may be used as part of the process of proof auditing. Note that a theorem prover is itself necessarily a proof checker (although its level of user interaction may not be suitable for checking a given proof). Also note that a proof checker is not necessarily a theorem prover, because it need only check that the logic is being adhered to rather than actually perform deduction within the logic. See "proof auditing".

proof object : (n) A concrete representation of the operations performed in a given formal proof, declaration or assertion. See "proof object exporter", "proof object importer", "De Bruijn criterion", "Common HOL". Compare with "proof script".

proof object exporter : (n) An extension to a theorem prover for recording proof objects and exporting them to files. See "Common HOL". Compare with "proof object importer".

proof object importer : (n) An extension to a theorem prover for importing proof objects from files and replaying them. See "Common HOL". Compare with "proof object exporter".

proof script : (n) A sequence of user-level commands for input into a theorem prover, for building theory and performing proof. Note that a proof script need not closely resemble the formal proof actually performed by the theorem prover; it just needs to somehow instruct the theorem prover to perform the proof, and this may be done using a few short high-level commands which get unravelled by the theorem prover into a long formal proof. See "ML session". Compare with "proof object".

proof system : (n) A name used in some texts for "deductive system".

ProofPower : (n) A contemporary HOL theorem prover, implemented from scratch in the 1990s and enhanced in the 2000s. It supports the Z specification language, which it defines in terms of HOL language, and is designed specially for use in formal verification. It has been used on various industrial formal verification projects. It is implemented in SML and has an LCF-style architecture. See "HOL family".

propositional logic : (n) Any simple formal logic for boolean values ("true" and "false") and certain classic operators over these values (logical negation, conjunction, disjunction, implication and logical equivalence). Propositional logic is used as the basis for many other formal logics. See "predicate logic".

provable : (adj) Relating to statements in a formal logic for which a formal proof can be constructed. See "theorem" (sense 4), "complete", "sound", "conservative extension".

quantifier : (n) A binder in a formal language, that returns a boolean value for a given boolean-valued body with respect to a given binding variable, based on the quantity of values for which the binding variable satisfies the body. Classic examples of quantifiers in mathematical logic are the universal quantifier and the existential quantifier. See "type quantifier".

quotation : (n) The ML concrete-syntax-level representation of a HOL object. HOL type and term quotations are used for both input and display, whereas HOL theorem quotations are used just for display. In a HOL system session, inputting a type or term quotation will automatically invoke the relevant parser (sense 1), which converts it into an internal HOL object, and evaluating a HOL-object-valued expression in the ML session will automatically invoke the relevant pretty printer, which displays it as a quotation. See "term quotation", "type quotation", "theorem quotation".

range : (n) The elements that a given function maps to. Also called "image" in mathematical texts. Compare with "domain".

range type : (n) The second type parameter of a HOL function type. Compare with "domain type".

Example: The range type of the HOL type `:'a#'b->bool` is `:bool`.

read-eval-print loop : (n) A name used in some texts for "ML toplevel". Sometimes abbreviated to "REPL".

REPL : (n) An abbreviation for "read-eval-print loop".

reader : (n) An abbreviation for "reader function".

reader combinator : (n) An operator on reader functions, performing an operation such as alternation or sequential composition of two reader functions, or repeatedly applying a reader function until it fails. Recursive descent parsers can be implemented using a combinator for each kind of grammar operator used in the formal grammar, enabling the parser to transparently implement the formal grammar. Also called "parser combinator" in some texts.

reader function : (n) A function used in the implementation of a parser (sense 2), that processes data from a given source, returning a read item and the source correspondingly advanced. Recursive descent parsers are typically implemented with reader functions that each correspond to a grammar symbol of the formal grammar. Also called "parser" (sense 4) in some texts. See "reader combinator".

recursive descent parser : (n) A parser (sense 2) that is implemented in a top-down style using mutual recursion. Such parsers can be written using reader functions and reader combinators in such a way that the source code transparently reflects the formal grammar being implemented. See "left recursion".

redefinition : (n) The situation where an ML assertion command is executed for defining a HOL theory entity or axiom that already exists in the theory. Redefinition results in failure of the command, except in the case of benign redefinition (for systems that support benign redefinition).

regular : (adj) Relating to entity names in HOL Zero that conform to one of the three basic lexical classes for entity names: alphanumeric, numeric and symbolic.

relation : (n) A binary operator that returns a boolean value.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following are relations: "=", "==>", "<", "<=".

representation function : (n) See "type bijections".

representation type : (n) See "type constant definition".

reserved word : (n) A HOL quotation lexical token used to help give quotations syntactic structure. Compare with "identifier".

RHS : (n) Right-hand side (of a binary function application). Compare with "LHS".

right-associative : (adj) Relating to infix functions that syntactically group compounded RHS arguments when written without brackets in concrete syntax. Compare with "left-associative", "non-associative". See "associativity".

Example: In HOL Zero, the "==>" function is left-associative, so: `a ==> b ==> c ==> d ==> e` is the same term as: `a ==> (b ==> (c ==> (d ==> e)))`

rule : (n) An abbreviation for "inference rule" (senses 1 & 2).

satisfy : (v) To be an argument that causes a given test function or predicate to return "true".

Example: In HOL Zero, the numeral `4` satisfies the `EVEN` predicate: |- EVEN 4 <=> true

scope : (n) The extent of visibility of a given HOL entity in a given HOL term object, theorem object or theory. The scope of HOL constants and type constants is the entire HOL theory, whereas the scope of HOL variables and type variables is restricted to a given HOL term or theorem object. The scope of HOL variables may be further restricted by lambda abstractions: if it is a bound variable, then to the lambda abstraction for which it is the binding variable, and if it has the same name and type as the binding variable for any lambda abstraction subexpressions, then to the exclusion of those subexpressions.

Example: There are 4 variables in the following term, with differing scopes:
`z = 2 /\ (\y. y + z) = (\x. x + 3) /\ z = y`.
There is an "x" and a "y", each with a scope of their own lambda abstraction, a "y", with scope of the whole term minus the "y"-lambda abstraction, and a "z" with scope of the whole term.

select : (n) Another name for "Hilbert choice operator".

semantics : (n) An abbreviation for "formal semantics".

sequence : (n) A series of items or events that occur strictly one after the other, for example in the execution of a computer program or in a formal grammar. Compare with "alternation". See "Backus Naur Form".

sequent : (n) A statement in a formal logic, consisting of a set of "assumptions" and a "conclusion", all of which are boolean terms. A sequent is said to hold with respect to a given theory if its conclusion necessarily holds when its assumptions all hold (with respect to the theory). See "theorem" (sense 1).

session : (n) See "ML session".

simply-typed : (adj) Relating to type systems that are relatively simple and are not, for example, dependently-typed. There is considerable variation in the precise intended meaning of "simply-typed" in contemporary usage: in some usages parametric polymorphism is not a disqualifying factor, in other usages parametric polymorphism is only a disqualifying factor if it caters for type quantifiers, and in other usages still any form of polymorphism is a disqualifying factor. To avoid confusion, the usage of this term is avoided in HOL Zero, its documentation and elsewhere in this glossary.

SML : (n) An abbreviation for "Standard ML".

sound : (adj) Relating to a logical system, or an implementation of its formal logic in a theorem prover, in which every statement that is either provable or asserted in its formal logic also holds with respect to its formal semantics. The opposite of "unsound". Compare with "complete". See "logical soundness".

soundness : (n) An abbreviation for "logical soundness".

source : (n) 1. An abbreviation for "source code". 2. The input to a parser (sense 2) or a reader function.

Standard ML : (n) A dialect of the ML programming language with a standardised syntax and semantics. It is the programming language used to implement HOL90, HOL98, HOL4, HOL-Omega, Isabelle/HOL and ProofPower HOL. Abbreviated to "SML". Compare with "OCaml", "F#".

start symbol : (n) The top-level nonterminal symbol in a formal grammar, for top-level expressions of the syntax being described.

statement : (n) An expression of a formal language that has boolean value.

strongly-typed : (adj) 1. Relating to programming language type systems in which entities have a fixed type (modulo any parametric polymorphism) throughout their scope and cannot be implicitly converted to have another type. 2. Relating to programming languages with a strongly-typed type system. See "type-unsafe".

substitution : (n) The process of transforming a HOL object by replacing freely occurring subterms or subtypes in the object with new subterms/subtypes, according to a substitution scheme. Note that substitution should be performed in a way that avoids variable capture. See "instantiation".

substitution scheme : (n) An ML expression for use in HOL substitution that determines which particular freely occurring subtypes/subterms within a HOL object should be substituted, and which new values to substitute them with. See "instantiation list", "old-to-new", "new-for-old".

subterm : (n) 1. Either an entire given HOL term or a subcomponent that occurs somewhere within the term. A subterm is itself a term. 2. A direct subcomponent of a HOL function application or a lambda abstraction term.

Example: The subterms (sense 1) of `f (x + 5)` are: `f`, `x`, `5`, `$+`, `$+ x`, `x + 5` and `f (x + 5)`. The subterms (sense 2) of `f (x + 5)` are: `f` and `x + 5`.

subtype : (n) Either an entire given HOL type or a subcomponent that occurs somewhere within the type. A subtype is itself a type.

Example: The subtypes of `:'a#'b->bool` are: `:'a`, `:'b`, `:'a#'b`, `:bool` and `:'a#'b->bool`.

sum datatype : (n) An ML composite datatype whose elements partition into sets, called the "classes" of the datatype. Each class combines a fixed (and possibly empty) list of datatypes and has its own ML operator, called a "type constructor", for creating elements of the sum datatype from elements of the class's datatypes. Compare with "product datatype".

symbolic : (n) 1. A lexical class in HOL Zero, consisting of one or more symbol characters. (adj) 2. Relating to the lexical class symbolic.

syntactic category : (n) A classification for decomposing expressions, based purely on the top-level syntactic form of an expression, rather than on the value that it denotes. See "atom", "syntax function".

syntactic variable : (n) A name used in some texts for "nonterminal symbol".

syntax : (n) 1. The structural form of well-formed expressions of a given programming language or formal language in some representation. See "primitive syntax", "concrete syntax", "abstract syntax", "formal grammar". 2. The concrete syntax of a given programming language or formal language, normally in terms of lexical tokens as atoms. Compare with "lexical syntax". See "syntax analysis".

syntax analyser: (n) Another name for "syntax parser".

syntax analysis : (n) A stage of parsing, performed after lexical analysis, for checking that a sequence of lexical tokens adheres to a formal language's concrete syntax, and for turning the tokens into an equivalent structural representation. In HOL Zero type expression parsing, this structural representation is a HOL pretype, and in term expression parsing it is a HOL preterm. See "syntax parser".

syntax-correct : (adj) Well-formed with respect to the syntax of a given programming language or formal language. Note that in typed languages, a syntax-correct expression is not necessarily a well-formed expression, since it might not be type-correct.

syntax function : (n) An ML utility function dedicated to a particular syntactic category of HOL object, that is either a constructor, destructor or discriminator for that syntactic category.

syntax parser : (n) A parser (sense 2) for performing syntax analysis. Also called "syntax analyser" in some texts.

system : (n) 1. The implementation of a theorem prover. 2. The programming language or operating system environment in which a theorem prover is run. 3. A mechanism or structure of study in mathematical logic, for example "type system", "deductive system".

system soundness : (n) The quality of a theorem prover that has both logical soundness and printer soundness. System soundness is the pertinent concept in theorem prover trustworthiness, because the user will, in practice, rely on the pretty printer to display what has been proved and what has been asserted, as well as relying on the logical soundness of the system.

term : (n) 1. A well-formed expression in the HOL language. There are four primitive syntactic categories of term: variables, constants, function applications and lambda abstractions. Every term has a HOL type (which may contain type variables), and this type can be calculated from the term's component parts. Well-formedness restrictions exist for constants and function applications. See "internal term", "term quotation", "preterm". 2. An abbreviation for "internal term".

term atom : (n) An occurrence of a HOL variable or constant in a HOL term or theorem. Compare with "type atom".

term fixity : (n) The fixity of a HOL constant or variable name. See "fixity" (sense 2).

term quotation : (n) A quotation for a HOL term object, used for input and display. In HOL Zero, term quotations start and finish with a backquote (`) delimiter.

Example: `!x. P x \/ Q x` is a term quotation.

terminal symbol : (n) A grammar symbol for representing an actual atomic syntactic component of a given grammar's language. Compare with "nonterminal symbol".

test function : (n) An ML function that returns an ML boolean value.

then-branch : (n) See "conditional expression".

theorem : (n) 1. A statement that has been established to hold in a formal logic, either by proof or by assertion. In HOL, the statement is in the form of a HOL sequent. See "internal theorem", "theorem quotation". 2. An abbreviation for "internal theorem". 3. A name used in mathematical logic for statements that have been established to hold by proof (rather than by assertion). 4. A name used in mathematical logic for statements that are provable.

theorem prover : (n) A computer program for performing mechanised formal proof, rigidly adhering to a given formal logic. A theorem prover will typically also provide support for the management of formal proofs, the input and display of formal language expressions, and the development of theory that extends the formal logic. Also called "proof assistant", "theorem proving system" or "mechanised proof system" in some texts. Compare with "computer algegra system", "proof checker". See "generic theorem prover", "HOL family", "LCF approach", "De Bruijn criterion".

theorem proving : (n) A subject of computer science, concerned with the study of theorem provers and their application.

theorem quotation : (n) A quotation for a HOL theorem object, used for display. In HOL Zero, a theorem quotation is written starting with a list of the theorem's assumptions separated by commas, followed by a turnstile, followed by the theorem's conclusion. Note that, in LCF-style systems, theorem quotations cannot be used as a form of input for creating arbitrary internal theorems - ultimately, theorems can only be created by using inference rules and assertion commands.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is a theorem quotation: x > 2, y > 0 |- x * y > 2

theory : (n) 1. The accumulation of all declared theory entities and assertions that have been made within a given logic. The theory is "extended" when extra theory entities or assertions are added. 2. A modularised subdivision of the theory (sense 1) created within a given logic, that typically brings together related theory entities and assertions. Such a subdivision exists in the context of a hierarchy of subdivisions, and inherits visibilty of ancestor subdivisions. Some HOL systems (but not HOL Zero) support the maintenance of such theory hierarchies. See "extend", "constrain".

theory command : (n) An ML function for either changing or querying the state of the HOL theory.

theory entity : (n) An entity that denotes a specific non-arbitrary value or type in a theory. In HOL, constants and type constants are theory entities. Once declared, a theory entity becomes part of the formal language and can be constrained by adding assertions to the theory.

theory extension : (n) The process of extending (sense 2) a theory. This is done by declaration and/or assertion. See "conservative extension".

token : (n) An abbreviation for "lexical token".

toplevel : (n) An abbreviation for "ML toplevel".

trusted : (adj) 1. Relating to systems that are relied upon to have system soundness. 2. Relating to those parts of the implementation of a theorem prover that are ultimately relied upon to be correctly designed and implemented in order to ensure system soundness. In an LCF-style system, the trusted parts are limited to the core system.

tuple : (n) An ML data structure grouping two or more values together, written with parentheses surrounding a series of comma-separated components, as in '(a,b,c)' (although the parentheses are optional in OCaml). See "product datatype".

tupled : (adj) Relating to ML or HOL functions that take multiple arguments altogether in a tuple argument. Compare with "curried".

Example: The function "f" in the following term is a tupled function: `f (a,b)`

turnstile : (n) The symbol used in the concrete syntax for theorems in formal logics where theorems take the form of sequents, used to separate a theorem's assumptions from its conclusion. In HOL Zero, turnstile is written as "|-".

type : (n) 1. Denotation in a typed programming language or formal language for a set of values, for the purposes of the language's type system. Every value in such a language belongs to just one type, and every expression has a specific type, with its possible values necessarily being elements of its type. In HOL, all types are non-empty. Types in HOL may be polymorphic, and terms may have polymorphic types. There are two primitive syntactic categories of HOL type: type variables and compound types. Well-formedness restrictions exist for compound types. See "internal type", "type quotation", "pretype". 2. An abbreviation for "internal type". 3. A name used in some texts for "type constant" (sense 1). 4. A name used in some texts for "base type". 5. A name used in some texts for "compound type". 6. A name used in some texts for "generic type".

Example: In HOL Zero, the type `:nat#nat` denotes the set of all possible pairs of natural numbers, and the expression `(3,x+1)` has this type, and all possible values of this expression (e.g. `(3,1)`, `(3,2)`, etc) have this type.

type analysis : (n) A stage of parsing, performed after syntax analysis, for deducing types within a syntax-correct expression and/or checking that the expression is type-correct. In HOL Zero type expression parsing, type analysis involves checking the arity of type constants in the supplied pretype, and in term expression parsing it involves performing type inference on the supplied preterm and instantiating its pretypes accordingly.

type annotation : (n) An annotation that is embedded in a HOL term quotation or preterm, that prescribes the HOL type of its juxtaposed subterm. In HOL Zero, a type annotation is written as the subterm followed by a colon (:) and then the type (as in `x:bool`), and this must be surrounded by parentheses unless for a component of a pair or enumeration or for the top-level of a term. Also called "type constraint" in some texts.

Example: In the term `(f:'a->'b) x`, function `f` has type `:'a->'b`. In the term `x:bool`, variable "x" has type `:bool`.

type application : (n) A name used in some texts for "compound type".

type atom : (n) An occurrence of a HOL type variable or base type in a HOL type. Compare with "term atom".

type bijections : (n) The two mutually-inverse HOL functions that are defined to bijectively map between a given defined type and the subset of its representation type prescribed by its characteristic function. One is the "abstraction function", which maps from the representation type to the defined type. The other is the "representation function", which maps from the defined type to the representation type. See "type constant definition".

type constant : (n) 1. A HOL entity for giving fundamental structure to HOL types, with scope across the entire HOL theory. A type constant has a name and an arity, and cannot be overloaded with other type constants in the theory. Once declared, compound types can be constructed as instances of the type constant, and the cardinality of such types can be constrained by assertions. Also called "type operator", "type constructor" or just "type" in some texts. See "type constant declaration", "type constant definition", "base type", "type operator" (sense 1), "axiomantic type class". Compare with "type variable" (sense 1). 2. A name used in some texts for "base type".

Example: "->", "#", "bool" and "nat" are all type constants in HOL Zero.

type constant declaration : (n) A form of declaration for introducing new HOL type constants to the HOL language and theory. A type constant is declared by supplying a name and an arity. The name uniquely identifies the type constant, and cannot be overloaded with other type constants in the HOL theory. The arity fixes the number of type parameters that the type constant takes.

Example: In HOL Zero, the following ML command application: new_tyconst ("X", 2);; delcares type constant "X", giving it arity 2.

type constant definition : (n) A form of assertion for defining HOL type constants by conservative extension, whereby a general instance of the new type constant (i.e. with unique type variables for type parameters) is ultimately defined as being in bijection with a prescribed non-empty subset of an existing type (called the new type constant's "representation type"), thus determining the cardinality of compound types formed by the new type constant in terms of those of its type parameters and that of an existing type. This subset of the representation type is prescribed by a predicate (called the "characteristic function") on elements of the representation type, and its non-emptiness is established by supplying a theorem stating that there exists an element satisfying this predicate.

type constraint : (n) A name used in some texts for "type annotation".

type construction : (n) A name used in some texts for HOL "compound type".

type constructor : (n) 1. An ML operator for creating elements of a sum datatype. 2. A name used in some texts for HOL "type constant" (sense 1).

type-correct : (adj) Well-formed according to the type system of a given programming language or formal language. Also called "well-typed" in some texts.

type declaration : (n) A name used in some texts for "type constant declaration".

type definition : (n) A name used in some texts for "type constant definition".

type fixity : (n) The fixity of a HOL type constant name. See "fixity" (sense 2).

type inference : (n) The process of determining the most general HOL type for every term atom of a given HOL term quotation or preterm such that the resulting representation of the term is type-correct. See "type analysis".

Example: Type inference deduces that in the following term: `!(x:'a). f (3,x)` that "f" has type `:nat#'a->bool`.

type instance : (n) A HOL object is a type instance of second HOL object iff there is some instantiation of type variables in the second object that makes it equal the first.

Example: The term `IsSymmetric (R:nat->nat->bool)` is a type instance of the term `IsSymmetric (R:'a->'a->bool)`.

type instantiation : (n) Instantiation of the type variables in a HOL type, term or theorem object. Compare with "variable instantiation".

type operator : (n) 1. A HOL type constant with arity greater than zero. 2. A name used in some texts for "type constant" (sense 1).

type parameter : (n) A HOL type supplied to a HOL type operator to form a compound type.

type quantifier : (n) An operator available in some parametric polymorphic type systems, that acts as a quantifier for type variables, enabling a formal language to express a wider range of mathematics. See "HOL-Omega".

type quotation : (n) A quotation for a HOL type object, used for input and display. In HOL Zero, type quotations start and finish with a backquote delimiter (like term quotations), but also have a colon (:) as the first token inside the delimiters.

Example: `: 'a -> 'b -> 'a#'b` is a type quotation.

type system : (n) A mechanism for attributing types to the entities and expressions of a given programming language or formal language, for the purposes of strengthening the notion of well-formedness in the language further than the constraints imposed by the language's syntax. Under a type system, values in the language are partitioned according to their type. See "typed", "type-correct", "type-unsafe", "polymorphic", "dependently-typed", "strongly-typed", "simply-typed".

type unification : (n) The process of finding a closed instantiation for type variables in two separate HOL types or pretypes, for making these types equal.

Example: Unifying the following types: `:'a#nat -> 'b` and `:'c#'d -> 'a -> 'd` results in the following old-to-new instantiation list: [ (`:'b`, `:'a->nat`); (`:'c`, `:'a`); (`:'d`, `:nat`) ]

type-unsafe : (adj) 1. The quality of a program that circumvents the type system of its programming language. 2. The quality of a programming language that permits type-unsafe (sense 1) programs to be written. OCaml is type-unsafe because its libraries contain functions such as 'Obj.magic', that converts a value to an arbitrary datatype, thus enabling values of an abstract datatype to be created without using the datatype's constructors.

type variable : (n) 1. A entity for referring to an arbitrary type, for the purposes of parametric polymorphism. In HOL, type variables have just a name attribute, and have scope throughout a given HOL object and cannot be overloaded with other type variables in the same object. Compare with "type constant" (sense 1). 2. A primitive syntactic category of HOL type, denoting an occurrence of a type variable (sense 1). It has just a name attribute. In HOL Zero quotations, occurrences of type variables are pretty printed with an apostrophe (') prefix by default.

Example: The type `:'a#'b -> 'a -> bool` has two type variables: "a" and "b". There are two occurrences of "a" and one of "b".

typed : (adj) Relating to programming languages, formal languages and formal logics that have a type system. See "polymorphic", "dependently-typed".

unary function : (n) An ML or HOL function that takes just one argument. Compare with "binary function".

unique existential quantifier : (n) A quantifier of predicate logic, denoting "true" iff its body has value "true" for precisely one value of its binding variable. In HOL Zero, the unique existential quantifier is a polymorphic constant with name "?!", which has binder fixity. Also called "unique exists". Compare with "existential quantifier", "universal quantifier".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is a unique existential quantification: `?!x. y + x = y` which means "there exists a unique x such that `y + x = y`" (which has value "true" for natural numbers).

universal quantifier : (n) A quantifier of predicate logic, denoting "true" iff its body has value "true" for all values of its binding variable. In HOL Zero, the universal quantifier is a polymorphic constant with name "!", which has binder fixity. Also called "for all". Compare with "existential quantifier".

Example: In HOL Zero, the following is a universal quantification: `!x. x = 0 \/ x > 0` which means "for all x, x = 0 or x > 0" (which has value "true" for natural numbers).

unsound : (adj) The opposite of "sound", i.e. relating to a logical system, or the implementation of its formal logic in a theorem prover, for which there are statements that can be proved in its formal logic but that do not hold in its formal semantics. An inconsistent logic is certainly unsound with respect to any meaningful semantics. See "logical unsoundness".

utility function : (n) An ML function on HOL objects that is not an inference rule or a theory command.

variable : (n) 1. A HOL entity for referring to an arbitrary value (of given type) within a given HOL term or theorem object. Variables have a name and a type, and are allowed in HOL to be overloaded with other variables within their scope. The scope of a variable is restriced by any lambda abstractions in its object that have a binding variable with the same name and type. Compare with "constant" (sense 1). 2. A primitive syntactic category of HOL term, denoting an occurrence of a variable (sense 1). It has name and type attributes, where the type may contain type variables. Any two occurrences of variables in the same object refer the same entity iff they have the same name, type and scope. 3. An ML binding that does not have a function value.

Example: The term `x + y > y - 2` has two variables (sense 1): "x" and "y", both with type `:nat`. There is one occurrence of the variable "x" and two of "y".

variable capture : (n) A potential cause for error in the implementation of ML functions that perform type or term substitution on a HOL term or theorem object. Specifically, it is the situation where variables that are free in the resulting object's new subterms are bound (or "captured") in the overall resulting object, thus potentially altering the object's syntactic structure beyond the subtypes/subterms that have been substituted. This happens due to name clashes with the object's binding variables, and can be avoided by suitably renaming any offending binding variables. Variable capture during substitution on a theorem object can result in logical unsoundness.

Example: Simplistically substituting `x+1` for `a` in the following theorem: |- ?x. !y. (a - x) * y = 0 would result in: |- ?x. !y. ((x+1) - x) * y = 0 , which is clearly not a valid deduction (and is not allowed in HOL Zero!). The resulting theorem's new subterm, `x+1`, would have free variable "x", which would be bound in the overall theorem, thus causing variable capture. This can be avoided by suitably renaming the theorem's binding variable "x" (to, say, "x'"): |- ?x'. !y. ((x+1) - x') * y = 0.

variable closure : (n) For a given variable in a given HOL term, its point of variable closure is the subterm at which the variable becomes bound, or the top level of the term if the variable is free in the term. Compare with "name closure".

variable instantiation : (n) Instantiation of the variables in a HOL term or theorem object. Compare with "type instantiation".

variable marking : (n) A mechanism used in HOL Zero identifiers, whereby an identifier that refers to a variable or type variable entity may be prepended by a special character to make clear that the identifier is not referring to a constant of type constant with the same name.

variable structure : (n) A HOL term that is either a variable or a (possibly compound) pair of variables.

visible : (adj) Relating to a given HOL entity that, for a given context, can be referred to in that context. See "scope".

well-formed : (adj) A precise notion used in a formal language for capturing the minimal standards required for an expression to be meaningful in the language. Well-formed typically means syntax-correct or, in typed languages, both syntax-correct and type-correct. The opposite of "ill-formed".

well-typed : (adj) A name used in some texts for "type-correct".

wrt : (n) Shorthand used in mathematics for "with respect to".